Level 1 & 2 – FINAL

BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF THE AIR FORCE
DEPARTMENT OF THE AIR FORCE MANUAL 13-217
22 APRIL 2021
Incorporating Change 1, 19 APRIL 2022
Nuclear, Space, Missile, or Command and Control
DROP ZONE, LANDING ZONE, AND HELICOPTER LANDING ZONE OPERATIONS
COMPLIANCE WITH THIS PUBLICATION IS MANDATORY

Table 4.1. Minimum LZ Runway/Taxiway Length/Width for Standard Traffic.

M/H/C-130H/J (Note 2&5) Length 3,000  |  Width 60

Note 1: Minimum lengths do not include any overruns. Minimum required overruns and use of overruns are defined in Table 4.2 and paragraph 4.3.2.2. For aircraft that use ground roll criteria, refer to paragraph 4.3.2.1. Environmental conditions and mission parameters may increase length requirements due to a longer ground roll. Include climatology and a person familiar with the performance of the aircraft during the planning phase to preclude a mission cancellation due to insufficient LZ length. C-17 minimum LZ runway lengths at different pressure altitudes, operating weights, surfaces and runway condition rating (RCR) are found in UFC 3-260-01, Table 7-2.

Note 2: Calculated minimum runway length is ground roll plus (+) 500 feet, however all operations less than 3,000 feet require a waiver. Exception: Waiver not required for MC-130.

Note 3: LZ shoulders are not required for operational LZ evaluation (survey and/or assessment) and use, but are required for construction evaluation (survey of initial construction or repairs).

Note 4: Larger width is desired for normal operations. Consult MAJCOM guidance if desired, required, or planned use of a runway width is less than those listed in Table 4.1. (T-3).

Note 5: The 180 degree turn (3 point) widths do not include a safety margin. Increase by ten feet for routine operations.
Note 6: LTFW Aircraft smaller than C-130 not identified in Table 4.1, refer to paragraphs A9.1-A9.2, Table A9.2, Figures A9.1 and A9.2.

CDS—Container Delivery System

The Container Delivery System is an airdrop method used by the military to deliver supplies, such as food, water, ammunition, and medical equipment, from aircraft to ground forces. In this system, supplies are packed in containers and equipped with parachutes, allowing them to be dropped accurately to designated locations. CDS is commonly used in resupply missions, especially in remote or inaccessible areas.

Table 3.1. Standard DZ Size Criteria

Table 4.2. LZ Runway Slopes, Overruns and Vertical Obstruction Clearances.

3.3.3. Military Free Fall (MFF) DZ (including operations utilizing MFF systems in a Double Bag Static Line (DBSL) configuration). The JM will determine the minimum size DZ based on the number of personnel to be dropped, jumper proficiency, parachute system being used, and the prevailing winds. (T-3). For MFF training operations a minimum DZ size of 55 yards/50 meters by 110 yards/100 meters (rectangular) or 55 yards/50 meters radius (circular) is recommended. See paragraph 3.16.1.1 for parachute demonstration DZ.

CBR—California Bearing Ratio

The California Bearing Ratio is a standardized test used to evaluate the strength of soil and subgrade materials by measuring their resistance to penetration. It is commonly used in pavement design to determine the load-bearing capacity of soils for airfields, roads, and other infrastructure projects. The CBR value is expressed as a percentage, with higher values indicating stronger soils that are more capable of supporting heavy loads.

3.3.2. Tactical DZ. A tactical DZ is a DZ that is approved for use in an abbreviated or expeditious manner primarily intended to support emerging mission requirements during contingencies or exercises. Tactical DZs are normally restricted to exercise or contingency missions supporting resupply and personnel infiltration airdrops (versus proficiency jumps, routine training, etc.). Tactical DZ surveys are processed and approved in an abbreviated manner, do not require an AF Form 3823 to be physically signed, and may be passed electronically and/or verbally. Tactical DZs normally require a physical inspection of the DZ by the ground mission unit and a safety of flight review. However, computer-based mapping tools, imagery analysis, and other standoff tools may be used during exercise or contingency operations when tactical conditions do not permit the ground mission unit to physically occupy the DZ area to collect survey data.

4.3.1. LZ Strength Reporting. Use LZ strength reporting to determine rated WBC of operating surfaces. Report LZ features (e.g., runway (rwy), taxiway, apron) as semi-prepared, paved, or unprepared. Report paved LZ strength by Pavement Classification Number (PCN).

Table 3.1. Standard DZ Size Criteria.

3.5.6. Aerial Power Line Restrictions. Power lines present a significant hazard to jumpers. Personnel can sustain life threatening injuries from electric shock and/or falls from a collapsed canopy. All restrictions apply to aerial power lines operating at 50 kilovolts or greater. Power lines will be documented on both block 11, remarks, and block 10, DZ diagram, of AF Form 3823. (T-3).

also

A4.1.10. Block 10. Provide a legible, to scale diagram of the DZ including all obstacles or prominent features located within the DZ boundaries and 5 NM from DZ center that could affect ground or flight safety. Annotate the distance these items are from the DZ center in block 11 and depict on the DZ diagram, block 10 to include DZ dimensions. Ensure to annotate all charted or observed water hazards and power lines within 1,000 meters of the DZ boundaries (or 1,000 meters of the MFF PI). Diagram shall be oriented true north and indicated with an arrow. (T-1).

3.3.1.1. DZ water depth will be a minimum of ten feet, and the area must be free of underwater obstructions to that depth. (T-2). The DZ should be free of floating debris, moored craft, protruding boulders, stumps, pilings, or other hazards within 440 yards/400 meters of the DZ center point.

Table 3.1. Standard DZ Size Criteria.

https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_geodesy/geo09_gps.html

It takes four GPS satellites to calculate a precise location on the Earth using the Global Positioning System: three to determine a position on the Earth, and one to adjust for the error in the receiver's clock.

The minimum number of satellites required to calculate a 3-dimensional GPS coordinate location (latitude, longitude, and altitude) is four.

1. Three Satellites for Position: The first three satellites provide the basic coordinates (latitude, longitude, and altitude) by trilateration, which involves calculating the intersection of three spheres centered around each satellite.
2. Fourth Satellite for Time Correction: The fourth satellite is necessary to correct for any discrepancies in the GPS receiver’s clock. GPS systems rely on highly accurate time measurements, and the fourth satellite helps ensure precise synchronization, removing any timing errors.

1. Soft/Wet Spots: These areas are prioritized first as they are most likely to have weakened load-bearing capacity. Testing here ensures safety by assessing the risk of excessive deformation or instability under aircraft weight, which could lead to hazardous conditions.

2. Repaired Areas: Repaired areas are next because they might have variable compaction and strength due to recent work. Testing verifies whether these areas meet the required standards and can withstand operational stresses without premature failure.

3. Primary Braking Zone: This zone experiences high stress during landing as aircraft decelerate. Testing ensures the soil can handle repeated braking forces, reducing the risk of rutting or soil displacement that could compromise safety.

4. Turnaround Areas: These areas handle heavy loads as aircraft turn, which can create significant lateral stress on the soil. Testing helps confirm that the area can support these maneuvers without excessive wear or instability.

5. Touchdown Zone: The touchdown area is subject to impact forces each time an aircraft lands. Testing ensures that the soil can withstand the repeated compressive loads, preventing issues like surface deformation or reduced structural integrity.

6. Point of Rotation: This area bears the weight of the aircraft during liftoff, where the nose lifts, and additional stress is applied. Testing here ensures that the soil strength is sufficient to support these loads, helping maintain a safe and stable surface for takeoffs.

This priority order addresses the highest risk areas first, ensuring that critical zones affecting operational safety are tested before moving to lower-stress areas.

The acronym PCASE stands for Pavement-Transportation Computer Assisted Structural Engineering.

PCASE is a software suite developed by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) to assist in the design, evaluation, and maintenance of airfield and roadway pavements for military use. It provides engineers with tools for analyzing pavement structures, including determining load-bearing capacity, predicting pavement performance, and planning necessary repairs or reinforcements. PCASE is essential for ensuring that airfield and transportation infrastructure can support the operational demands of military aircraft and vehicles.

Lines of Latitude are oriented horizontally (east-west) and indicate the north-south position of a point on Earth.

Latitude lines run parallel to the Equator, with values measured in degrees from 0° at the Equator up to 90° north or south at the poles. This orientation allows latitude to express how far a point is from the Equator in terms of north or south position.

The acronym RTK stands for Real-Time Kinematic.

RTK is a satellite navigation technique used to enhance the accuracy of GPS and GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) positioning. It provides real-time corrections by using a fixed base station and a mobile receiver to achieve centimeter-level accuracy, which is crucial for applications in surveying, construction, precision agriculture, and other fields requiring high-precision location data.

The aircraft associated with the nickname “Sky Truck” is the PZL M-28 or in military terms the C-145A

The PZL M28, manufactured by the Polish company PZL Mielec (now part of Lockheed Martin), is a twin-engine, short takeoff and landing (STOL) utility aircraft. Known for its rugged design, the M28 “Sky Truck” is well-suited for operations in challenging environments, including unprepared or short airstrips, making it popular for both military and civilian missions that require high maneuverability and versatility.

The Controlling Region is the specific area used to determine the Glide Slope Ratio (GSR) for a runway. This region is assessed for obstacles that may interfere with the glide path, and the most restrictive obstacle within it dictates the required GSR.

The allowable rate of longitudinal grade change for a taxiway, set at 2% per 100 feet, is designed to ensure smooth transitions in elevation. Since aircraft travel at slower speeds on taxiways compared to runways, a greater tolerance for grade changes is acceptable without compromising stability. This gradual grade also reduces the risk of tail strikes, maintains undercarriage clearance, and minimizes stress on the aircraft, supporting safe and efficient ground operations.

The Glideslope Ratio (GSR) for a C-146A “Wolfhound” typically aligns with standard approach angles used for tactical and short-field aircraft operations. The C-146A, being a tactical airlift aircraft, usually follows a 3-degree glideslope, which is standard for many aircraft types and provides a GSR of approximately 20:1.

This 20:1 ratio means that for every 20 units of horizontal distance, the aircraft descends by 1 unit vertically. This ratio allows for safe, controlled approaches to airfields, especially in shorter or more austere environments where precise landings are required.

A ‘Cursory’ PCI rating is a quick, preliminary assessment of the pavement surface, providing a qualitative overview of visible surface distresses and general condition. It is not to be confused with an evaluation of the pavement’s structural capacity, as it does not involve detailed measurements or an in-depth analysis required for load-bearing assessments. This rating is useful for identifying areas that may need further investigation or more comprehensive inspection.

The Pavement Classification Number (PCN) is a number that expresses the load-carrying capacity of a pavement for unrestricted operations. It provides a standardized measure indicating the maximum allowable aircraft load that a pavement can support without risking structural damage, ensuring safe and efficient use.

PCN is typically presented in a format like PCN 40 / R / B / W / T, where each component specifies:

• PCN Value: The strength level of the pavement (e.g., 40).
• Pavement Type: R (Rigid) or F (Flexible).
• Subgrade Strength: A (High), B (Medium), C (Low), or D (Ultra-low).
• Traffic Category: W (High frequency) to Z (Occasional).
• Evaluation Method: T (Technical) or U (Using experience).

This system helps align pavement capacity with aircraft needs, especially when determining compatibility based on Aircraft Classification Number (ACN).

The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) is based on the characteristics that indicate how a soil will behave as a construction material.

This system categorizes soils by properties such as particle size, gradation, plasticity, and compressibility, which help predict the soil’s performance and suitability for various construction applications. By assessing soil behavior as a construction material, the USCS provides essential insights into its stability, load-bearing capacity, and overall suitability for building and engineering projects.

The Surface Profile Airfield Condition Index (SPACI) surface distress of Rolling Resistant Material (RRM) is directly related to the Rolling Friction Factor (RFF), as both measure how surface conditions affect the ease or resistance of aircraft movement over the airfield.

Here’s how they are connected:

1. Surface Roughness and Rolling Resistance:
• The SPACI rating for RRM reflects the roughness, texture, and overall quality of the airfield surface. High SPACI surface distress, indicating rough or uneven surfaces, results in increased rolling resistance as the wheels encounter more friction and resistance when moving over irregularities.
• Rougher surfaces, such as those with loose aggregate or damaged areas, contribute to a higher Rolling Friction Factor (RFF). A higher RFF means there’s more resistance to rolling, which can lead to increased wear on aircraft tires and affect fuel efficiency.
2. Impact on Aircraft Performance:
• As SPACI surface distress increases (indicating more severe surface issues), the RFF also rises, meaning aircraft require more power to overcome the additional rolling resistance. This is especially relevant during taxiing, takeoff, and landing, where high RFF values can impact braking, acceleration, and fuel consumption.
3. Maintenance Implications:
• A high SPACI surface distress rating for RRM typically signals the need for maintenance or repair to reduce RFF. By improving surface smoothness, the airfield can lower the RFF, enabling smoother, more efficient operations.

Regulated Navigation Areas (RNA) are specific maritime zones established by the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) within which certain rules, restrictions, or procedures are implemented to ensure safe and efficient vessel movement, environmental protection, or national security. RNAs are legally defined in U.S. waters and can apply to specific waterway segments, ports, or broader areas where unique navigational challenges or safety risks exist.

Key Aspects of Regulated Navigation Areas (RNA):

1. Purpose: RNAs are created to address specific risks in a designated area, such as high traffic density, hazardous cargo transport, environmental sensitivity, or proximity to critical infrastructure (e.g., bridges, ports, and military installations). The goal is to enhance safety, minimize accidents, protect sensitive environments, and, in some cases, safeguard national security.
2. Regulations and Restrictions:
• In an RNA, the USCG can impose restrictions on vessel speeds, traffic patterns, anchoring practices, and other operational guidelines to mitigate risks.
• Special requirements might be enforced within RNAs, such as mandatory reporting, additional safety measures, or the use of specific navigation routes.
3. Examples of RNAs:
• Traffic Separation Schemes near busy ports to manage traffic flow and reduce the risk of collisions.
• Speed Limit Areas around sensitive habitats to protect marine wildlife, such as whale migration corridors.
• Security Zones around critical infrastructure or military sites to prevent unauthorized access and ensure national security.
4. Enforcement: The USCG enforces RNAs and may issue fines or penalties for non-compliance. Vessels navigating within RNAs must follow the specified rules to avoid enforcement actions and ensure safe operations.

The “Serious” PCI rating (10-25) indicates that the pavement has extensive, high-severity distresses that significantly impact its functionality. Although it may still be somewhat usable, the condition is poor enough that repairs are needed urgently to prevent further degradation and ensure safe, continued operations. This rating suggests that while the pavement hasn’t entirely failed, it is close to a critical state, and immediate attention is required to address the issues.

Regional Satellite Navigation Systems:

1. IRNSS / NavIC (Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System) - India
• Coverage: India and surrounding regions (up to 1,500 km around India)
• Purpose: Provides independent positioning for civilian and military use within India and nearby areas.
2. QZSS (Quasi-Zenith Satellite System) - Japan
• Coverage: Japan and the Asia-Oceania region
• Purpose: Enhances GPS signals with higher accuracy for Japan, particularly in urban and mountainous regions.
3. BeiDou-2 (Regional System) - China
• Coverage: Asia-Pacific region (expanded globally as BeiDou-3)
• Purpose: Initially served China and neighboring countries before expanding globally.

Regional Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS):

1. GAGAN (GPS-Aided GEO Augmented Navigation) - India
• Coverage: India and surrounding regions
• Purpose: Enhances GPS accuracy for aviation and other users in India, particularly useful for precise approaches in aviation.
2. EGNOS (European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service) - European Union
• Coverage: Europe
• Purpose: Augments GPS for Europe, improving accuracy and reliability, especially for aviation and safety-critical applications.
3. WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System) - United States
• Coverage: North America
• Purpose: Provides GPS augmentation for the United States, improving accuracy for navigation and precision approaches in aviation.
4. MSAS (Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System) - Japan
• Coverage: Japan
• Purpose: Enhances GPS signals for Japan, especially for civil aviation applications.
5. SDCM (System for Differential Correction and Monitoring) - Russia
• Coverage: Russia and neighboring regions
• Purpose: Augments GLONASS for improved accuracy in Russia, mainly for civilian use.
6. KASS (Korea Augmentation Satellite System) - South Korea
• Coverage: South Korea
• Purpose: Augments GPS signals for aviation and other high-accuracy applications in South Korea.

1. Geostationary Satellites:
• A geostationary satellite orbits at a specific altitude (about 35,786 km above the equator) and matches the Earth’s rotation period. It completes one orbit around the Earth in 24 hours, essentially remaining fixed over a single point on the Earth’s surface.
• This orbit period aligns with the solar day, so the satellite appears stationary relative to the ground, which is ideal for applications like communication and weather monitoring.

2. Sidereal vs. Solar Day for Satellite Orbits:
• If we measure a satellite’s rotation based on the sidereal day (23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.1 seconds), this rotation aligns with the Earth’s actual rotational period relative to the stars.
• Non-geostationary satellites, especially those in low Earth orbit (LEO), complete multiple orbits per sidereal day and may pass over the same location on Earth slightly earlier each day because of the shorter sidereal period.

3. Orbital Inclination and Precession:
• Satellites with inclined orbits (not strictly over the equator) may also experience changes in their ground track due to Earth’s sidereal rotation. Each sidereal day, the satellite passes over the Earth in a slightly different position relative to the previous day, causing it to appear to “shift” across the surface.
• This shifting pattern is beneficial for satellites conducting Earth observations, as it enables them to scan different parts of the Earth over time.

Record the Depth and Identify as Impenetrable: Document the exact depth at which the impenetrable layer was reached. Mark it clearly as an impenetrable layer in the data logs, distinguishing it from other measured layers.

2. Stop Further Penetration at that Point: Since the DCP cannot penetrate this layer, further testing cannot continue below it. Note that this depth represents a boundary beyond which DCP data is not available or applicable.

3. Assign a value of 80 CBR

Fixed Distance Markings are used on runways to provide a visual reference point for pilots, helping them gauge their touchdown accuracy, especially during precision landings. These markings are found on specific types of runways where safe and accurate landing performance is critical, and they are typically positioned 1,000 feet from the runway threshold to serve as a standardized target for pilots. Here are the primary scenarios in which Fixed Distance Markings are used:

1. Instrument Runways: These markings are commonly found on instrument runways equipped for precision approaches, such as those with an Instrument Landing System (ILS) or Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI). In low-visibility conditions, pilots use instruments to land accurately, and Fixed Distance Markings support this by indicating an optimal touchdown point.

2. Runways with Precision Approach Requirements: Fixed Distance Markings are essential on runways requiring precise touchdown points for safety, especially at airports handling larger commercial aircraft. By providing a clear target, they help ensure aircraft touch down within a safe distance from the threshold, maximizing the available stopping distance.

3. High-Traffic Runways: At high-traffic airports, these markings help standardize landing operations. By guiding pilots toward a consistent touchdown point, they reduce the risk of overruns and allow for efficient runway use and quicker aircraft turnarounds.

4. Military and Training Runways: For military and pilot training operations, Fixed Distance Markings are valuable for practicing accurate touchdowns. They give pilots a clear target, which is essential for developing consistent landing skills.

Additionally, Fixed Distance Markings are only used on runways that are at least 150 feet (45.7 meters) wide. This width requirement is standard because these wider runways are designed for larger, instrument-rated aircraft that benefit from precise landing guidance. The additional width accommodates Fixed Distance Markings and other essential visual cues without overcrowding the runway surface, ensuring pilots have sufficient references for safe landings.

For a helipad with a single direction ingress, the typical marking pattern includes:

1. Identification Marking:
• A black-colored capital “H” underlined in the center of the helipad to indicate the touchdown and liftoff area. The underline on the “H” aligns with the intended approach direction, guiding pilots to the correct ingress path.

2. Perimeter Markings:
• Broken square markings at the corners and along the edges of the helipad indicate the limits of the safe touchdown area.
• These broken lines provide a clear boundary without creating a fully enclosed square, which helps differentiate the helipad from other markings and aids visibility, especially in low-light conditions.

1. Reduced RCR:
• The RCR value provides a measure of runway friction and surface condition, typically rated on a scale (e.g., from 5 to 23), where a lower RCR indicates poorer braking conditions, such as those caused by wet, icy, or snowy surfaces.
• When the RCR is reduced, the C-17 experiences less effective braking and a longer stopping distance.
• A lower RCR can increase the risk of skidding or hydroplaning, especially if other environmental factors, like rain or snow, are present.
• To compensate, pilots may need to adjust their approach speed and braking techniques, and the required landing distance may increase to ensure a safe stop.

2. Increased Pressure Altitude (PA):
• Pressure altitude affects aircraft performance, as it represents the altitude at which the air density is equivalent to a specific atmospheric pressure.
• At higher pressure altitudes, the air is less dense, which decreases engine thrust, reduces aerodynamic lift, and affects braking efficiency.
• For the C-17, an increase in PA results in a longer landing roll due to reduced braking effectiveness and the need for higher true airspeeds to maintain proper control.
• Higher PA also affects takeoff distance, but on landing, it primarily means the aircraft may need additional runway length to safely decelerate to a stop.

Combined Effect on C-17 Landing Operations:

• When both RCR is reduced and PA is increased, the C-17 requires significantly more runway length to land safely.
• Pilots must account for both factors in their landing approach, adjusting speeds, descent profiles, and possibly planning for alternative runways with better conditions or longer lengths if available.
• The combined impact may limit operations in certain high-altitude, poor-surface-condition airfields, as it reduces overall landing performance and increases the risk of overruns.

The primary purpose of the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) in airfield surveying is to evaluate the strength and load-bearing capacity of soil layers. This is critical for determining whether the ground can support the weight and operational demands of aircraft and other heavy equipment. In airfield surveying, the DCP provides essential data for:

1. Assessing Soil Strength: The DCP measures soil resistance at various depths, indicating how well different soil layers can support loads. This information helps engineers understand the structural integrity of the airfield’s subsurface layers.
2. Identifying Layer Boundaries: By measuring the penetration resistance at each depth, the DCP helps define the depth and thickness of soil layers with varying strengths, which is essential for determining suitable pavement or soil reinforcement designs.
3. Predicting Performance under Load: DCP results are used to estimate the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of the soil, a key indicator of its load-bearing capability. Higher CBR values correlate with stronger soils that can support heavier loads.
4. Supporting Maintenance and Rehabilitation Decisions: By identifying weak layers or areas with low load-bearing capacity, the DCP aids in planning maintenance, upgrades, or reinforcement efforts for airfield pavements and unpaved areas.

1. Visual Runway Markings:
• Visual runways are used primarily when pilots navigate visually rather than relying on instruments.
• These runways typically have basic markings, which include the runway number and a centerline. There may also be side stripes marking the edges of the usable pavement.
• Visual runways do not have additional guidance markings such as touchdown zones or aiming points, as they are designed for conditions where pilots have clear visibility.

2. Non-Precision Instrument Runway Markings:
• Non-precision instrument runways provide horizontal guidance to pilots but do not offer vertical guidance.
• These runways are used in conditions where some degree of instrument navigation is required, but the precision does not include glide slope guidance.
• Markings on these runways include the runway number, centerline, and typically an aiming point to aid pilots in positioning their approach. However, they lack touchdown zone markings found on precision runways.

3. Precision Instrument Runway Markings:
• Precision instrument runways support both horizontal and vertical guidance, which is essential for operations in low visibility and poor weather conditions.
• These runways have the most comprehensive set of markings, including the runway number, centerline, threshold, aiming points, and touchdown zones.
• The additional markings help guide pilots accurately to the designated touchdown point, ensuring a safer and more controlled landing approach under instrument flight rules (IFR).

Individual parking aprons for each parked C-17 aircraft on a semi-prepared Landing Zone (LZ) are recommended due to potential Foreign Object Damage (FOD) concerns. Semi-prepared surfaces can have loose debris, which poses a risk to aircraft engines and sensitive equipment. Providing separate aprons minimizes the chance of FOD being blown or kicked up from other nearby aircraft, enhancing safety and operational reliability for each C-17 parked on the LZ.

1. Boundary Definition: The solid white side stripe indicates the edge of the usable runway, separating it from areas like shoulders or safety zones, which may not be designed to support aircraft weight. This helps pilots visually differentiate between the operational runway surface and non-operational areas.
2. Safety and Guidance: By marking the edges, the stripe ensures pilots have clear guidance for remaining within safe operational boundaries during takeoff, landing, and taxiing. It is essential, especially in low visibility conditions, to prevent unintentional runway excursions.
3. Standardized Marking: According to aviation regulations and standards (such as those set by the FAA and ICAO), runways are marked with specific lines to indicate their limits. The solid white side stripe is a standardized marking across airfields, making it universally recognizable as the edge of usable pavement.